From Screen to Silicon: Nick Montfort's 'Round'

<center>From Screen to Silicon: Reverse Engineering the Computational Infrastructure of Nick Montfort’s Round Lai-Tze Fan Beta version, May 2021 (live: 3s)[[[BEGIN->Start 2]]] (live: 6s)[//Forthcoming in// Digital Narrative Space: An Interdisciplinary Approach, //edited by Daniel Punday, Routledge.//] (live: 8s)[<a href="https://laitzefan.files.wordpress.com/2021/05/fan-fsts-works-cited.pdf">Works Cited</a>]

When engaging with a digital device—whether pressing keys, streaming a video, or swiping through photographs—the screen is where the attention of most users stops. A [[user’s undivided attention->P2]] on the screen interface is arguably the sole focus of many commercialized devices, catalyzed by practices in black box design, which are used by many technological industries. (live: 10s)[In black box design, user perception and examination are limited to an object or system’s explicit input and output functions, meaning that internal functions are unavailable for analysis and that users are discouraged from knowing what’s going on beneath the hood—or, in the case of computational devices, behind the screens.] (live: 20s)[Here, the term “infrastructure” is not limited to individual device design, but rather, it refers to a global-scale technocapital infrastructure, thereby encompassing factors in post-industrial capitalism, political economy, globalization, natural resources and their origins, and the exploitation of laborers worldwide that collectively keep the technocapital wheel turning.]

This chapter explores how users can be encouraged to think about hardware operations that occur when using digital devices, as well as the material, labor, and environmental processes of producing, repurposing, and disposing device hardware. I seek to re-think the ways in which we talk about and imagine computational infrastructure, especially by troubling the linear trajectory that is exhibited by the classic capital circuit model—Production, Distribution, and Consumption—here specifically to account for the conditions of technocapitalism. I draw upon * Kate Crawford’s <a href="https://anatomyof.ai/">Anatomy of an AI System</a> * Benjamin H. Bratton’s concept of <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/stack">"The Stack"</a> as examples of [[visually and theoretically modelling computational->P3]] infrastructures that represent their networked and non-linear systems more transparently.

I will use a similar non-linear storytelling approach, arguing that critical and creative storytelling about computational infrastructures can further our understanding of their systems, processes, and nuances by pairing these complexities with a narration of my own user experience with my device. [[I will narrate stages of my experience->P4]] with a laptop, coupling these experiences with information about which hardware are responsible for which processes—as well as how these hardware components operate, what natural materials they are made of, where these materials come from, and how they are repurposed or disposed after the device is thrown away. This narration re-presents the capital circuit, expanding it to include the vital stages that precede Production—Excavation and Refinement—and that follow Consumption—Repurposing and Disposal.

My case study exhibits a strong critical consideration of a user’s experience as well as hardware and infrastructure: Nick Montfort’s generative computational poem <a href="http://round.newbinarypress.com/">Round</a> (2013) describes some of the functions of its own operative software and hardware. In choosing Round, however, I explicitly note that it is not the objective of Montfort nor of his creative work to address—and that he is not in a position of blame for not addressing—the exploitative aspects of technocapitalism that Round, through multiple associative steps, ultimately points to. I choose Round for its acute awareness of the relationship among screen content, software, and hardware, and for its successes in [[drawing more attention->Z1]] to these relationships compared to other works that I could have examined.

(live: 2s)[I am a reader in Toronto, Canada.] (live: 5s)[I am also a [[computer user->B1]], sitting before a [[laptop->A1]] that does not have any programs running.] (live: 10s)[I open my Internet browser and type in the URL "http://round.newbinarypress.com" to access Nick Montfort’s generative poem Round.] (live:18s)[<img src="https://laitzefan.files.wordpress.com/2021/05/round.gif" width=800px>] (live: 22s)[Now I have become a client too, seeking a website hosted by the online publishing house New Binary Press, with the IP address (text-style:"blink")[...]] (live: 32s) [78.153.218.40] (live: 34s)[While the press and its Editors are located in Cork, Ireland, the IP address reveals that //New Binary Press//’s data and web servers, hosted by [[ISP Blacknight Hosting->Z2]], are located at the Carlow Data Center in Carlow, Ireland, which is about 170 kilometers from Cork.]

These descriptions cover the [[experience of the user->Z1]] (who, in the case of //Round//, is also a reader) and the events that occur within the user’s knowledge or, which are prompted on a content level with a user’s interaction with the screen and networks (including by connecting their device and IP with servers, hosts, and other users). The user’s experience and engagement are highlighted through the narrative, which articulates what’s happening with content on their screen, as well as what is happening to [[the device in their hands->Z3]] and before their eyes.

I can imagine the trajectory of the data as it is transferred across three cities, from its managers in Cork, the servers in Carlow, and sent to me across the Atlantic Ocean to Toronto. This [[data->Z3]] is represented as ephemeral content that is uploaded into and downloaded from [[“the cloud”->A1]]. Abstracts abound: online content has also been described in relation to the flow of water and as a super highway of information.

Having the website load successfully is only the start of running //Round//. The content of the poem is not in the source text, but rather, the content is the product of calculations that are performed by my [[COMPUTER PROCESSOR]]. (live: 10s)[Montfort explains in “A Note on Round":] (live: 13s)[<img src="https://laitzefan.files.wordpress.com/2021/05/pi.png" width=700>] (live: 20s)[That is: //Round// does not store the numerical sequence of π in its code; it runs a program that calculates those digits every time it is loaded.]

COMPUTER PROCESSORS, or CPUs (computer processing units), [[execute and enable->Z3]] all instructions behind the computer screen. Contemporary computers commonly have CPUs that take the shape of a single chip, which are called microprocessors. It is the CPU that calculates the next digit of π using the additional scripts in the code, jsbn.js and jsbn2.js. These scripts, called JavaScript Big Number 1 and 2, were written by computer scientist Tom Wu, are able to process “the large-integer arithmetic that Round performs” (n.p.). The CPU performs these functions by communicating with the computer’s memory (RAM), which [[executes all programs->Z5]], and also with the energy from the computer’s power supply—either a battery or an external source.

The text continues, and around the 10 minute mark, something starts to change in my laptop. (live: 5s)[The words of the poem begin to appear] (live: 8s)[more] (live: 10s)[slowly] (live: 12s)[and I am suddenly aware of my laptop [[FAN]]’s hum as its volume begins to rise. Normally, the fan is very quiet even when I am streaming movies.] (live: 18s)[At 12 minutes, the fan is [[unavoidably loud]]. I realize that if I were listening to music or watching a video, I would have to increase the volume to be able to hear comfortably. As an experiment, I run Round again while taking a video call, which speeds up the onset of the fan’s noisiness considerably, now starting at 3 minutes.]

Computer FANS, working in tandem with the [[HEATSINK]], are composed of a motor, a bearing (the frame around the perimeter of the fan), silicon steel plates, magnetic stripes, and copper wire. It is difficult to gage at what temperature the laptop fan goes into [[overdrive->Z5]], but a safe maximum temperature is about 35 °Celcius (95 °Fahrenheit).] As //Round// runs, the fan will work harder to prevent the internal temperature, especially of the CPU, from rising much above this. If the CPU reaches a temperature of 80 – 100 °C (176 — 212 °F), [[the computer will shut down.]]

I read Montfort’s explanation about what is happening: (live: 3s)[[[<img src="https://laitzefan.files.wordpress.com/2021/05/fan.png" width=700>->FAN]]]

The harder a computer works, the more frequently electricity passes through copper wires throughout the computer, as electrons run around and create friction that generates heat. As the fan whirs, I can feel the body of my laptop heat up beneath my resting palms. Along the top length of the laptop, along the keyboard where the two halves of the laptop connect, the computer is getting so hot that [[I become concerned->the computer will shut down.]]. How can I cool down my laptop? Should I point an external fan at it? An icepack? [[Should I close //Round//->disposal]]?

Heat reduction is a necessary part of computer maintenance to prevent the machine from [[overheating->fan heat]] and either crashing, shutting itself down, or being permanently damaged. An overheated battery will considerably shorten its lifespan. Overheating a CPU, GPU, or motherboard can reduce their operative functions. If any resin—found in resistors and an integrated circuit, for instance—melts or even catches fire, those parts of the computer or the entire machine [[must be replaced.]] (live:30s)[Wait ... where does it go?] (live:33s)[must be replaced. Must be re- ''place'' d]

Recovery is a priority with computational and electronic devices because of the need for natural resources and especially precious metals to produce technological hardware. Precious metals such as gold, silver, platinum, and palladium are so named because, although they can be made from other elements through nuclear reactions, in general they are rare and there is a [[finite amount available on Earth]]. How much of each of these resources are found in digital devices? To offer a general impression, the ERI Direct (the Electronic Recyclers International) reports that “for every 1 million cell phones recycled we can get these amounts of precious metals: 35,274 pounds of copper; 772 pounds of silver; 75 pounds of gold; 33 pounds of palladium."

//How are these components made and from what materials are they made? (live:5s)[Where are the [[manufacturers->where]] and who is doing this labor?] (live:10s)[What [[elements->what]] do the materials come from?] (live:13s)[Where are the [[refineries->what]] that process elements and who is doing the work of refining and smelting them?] (live:20s)[Where are the [[mines->what]] from which these raw materials are excavated?] (live:25s)[Who are the [[miners->what]]?]//

The Intel [[CPU->what]] microprocessor chip of my Mac laptop was made in either the USA, China, Ireland, or Israel, as these are the manufacturing locations identified by the official Intel corporation. The assembly of the CPU occurred in either Malaysia, China, Costa Rica, and Vietnam.

Your answer depends on what materials you're looking for. Below is a list of the raw materials commonly found in the * CPU: [[silicon->SILICON]], [[aluminum->ALUMINUM]], [[copper->COPPER]], arsenic, phosphorous, germanium, boron, antimony, hydroflouric acid, and photoresist polymers. * TRANSISTOR: [[silicon->SILICON]], boron, phosphorous, arsenic, [[aluminum->ALUMINUM]], and [[copper->COPPER]]. * FAN: [[silicon->SILICON]], [[copper->COPPER]], plastic (refined oils from fossil fuels), stainless steel, chrome steel, and ceramic. * HEATSINK: [[copper->COPPER]], [[aluminum->ALUMINUM]], polymers, [[silicon->SILICON]], boron, zinc, silver, and gallium.

(live:2s)[SILICON] (live:5s)[After oxygen, the second most common element on earth is silicon. Over two thirds of it is mined in China, but it is also excavated from other neighboring countries such as India, Russia, and Norway. According to the British Royal Society of Chemistry, silicon, like many other raw materials, “does not occur uncombined in nature." Rather, it is found as silicon dioxide (silica) and as silicates (which can be refined into asbestos, granite, clay, mica, and other materials).] (live:10s)[[[Silica->Silicon Earth]] in crystalline form is as fine as dust, and when breathed in, it causes extensive health problems to miners and refiners. Common health implications of silica dust include: * silicosis (lung inflammation and scarring) * lung cancer * chronic bronchitis * and some autoimmune diseases.]

A 2015 study of 57 silica mining sites of the Shankargarh region of India shows that there are environmental implications to mining silica as well. Land deterioration occurs through soil pollution and ravaged abandoned mines, resulting in the reduced productivity of top soil to produce healthy vegetation, and in turn affecting the local food chain. Pollution to plant surfaces also blocks them from sunshine and photosynthesis. Pollution to water through rain run-off and the “deterioration of ground water and natural drainage systems” is aggravated by the egregious amounts of water needed for mining, as much as 4500 – 6000 gallons of water per minute. Overall, biodiversity is greatly diminished.

//Round// will continue running until one of two things happens: I end the program by closing the window, because I decide to stop waiting for new lines as my laptop struggles to calculate the next digit, or, my laptop can no longer support the requests that it is being asked to make. Of the second possibility, Montfort notes that <img src="https://laitzefan.files.wordpress.com/2021/05/finite.png" width=700px> //Round// is not a never-ending poem, despite the fact that it is conceptually infinite. There is no final line, Montfort notes, no code condition to stop the program --so either I will make a decision or [[my laptop]] will make it for me.

I received my laptop in September 2019. I always try to replace computer parts and get more use out of the device, and when it’s well and truly over, I always save my devices for archival and future research purposes. I don’t want to give up my device after the end of its perceived use-value and cultural death. (live: 10s)[But, if I gave my device to an e-waste recycling program or an e-waste donation center, what would happen to the computer parts involved in //Round//—the CPU, fans, heat sink, transistor, wires, circuit board? [[Where do they go?->must be replaced.]] [[Who handles them?->must be replaced.]]]

Recovery of the reusable materials is a costly process, and even more costly to perform safely. For this reason, most e-waste that is meant for “recycling” is shipped to other parts of the world for outsourced cheap labor, especially to [[East]], [[South]], and [[South East Asian]] countries.

Depending on the country and its safety regulations, laborers do not always have access to protective equipment such as gloves, facemasks, and goggles.

Depending on the country and its safety regulations, laborers do not always have access to protective equipment such as gloves, facemasks, and goggles. <a href="https://laitzefan.wordpress.com/portfolio/2018-2020-e-waste-peep-show/">E-waste laborers in the Global South</a> face exposure to harmful materials while recovering resources and disposing unwanted parts. For example, the process of retrieving precious metals may require that they physically interact with elements such as arsenic, cadmium, and lead, all of which are poisonous.

Depending on the country and its safety regulations, laborers do not always have access to protective equipment such as gloves, facemasks, and goggles. A short video entitled “E Waste in India Short Documentary” explains the acid process: <iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/sFfaYc_pIx8?start=184" title="YouTube video player" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen></iframe> (align:"=><=")+(box:"XXX==")[“In this recycling shop, workers dip circuit boards and electric cables into plastic drums full of acid. The bubbles from the acid are stripping the cables of their last remnants of copper and traces of silver. When the acid is depleted, the men dump it into the [[open sewer->Pinto]] in the area."] The processes of resource recovery can occur in public and open spaces, where the method of burning in particular results in toxic fumes being released into the air, which are then inhaled by workers and other residents nearby. <iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/sFfaYc_pIx8?start=235" title="YouTube video player" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen></iframe> (align:"=><=")+(box:"XXX==")[“The residents say large piles of PVC-coated wires are burned here, a few times a month, in this open field in which children play cricket. They say a huge cloud of toxic smoke, containing organic chemicals such as brominated flame retardants and PCVs [sic], covers the school next to the playground, [[jeopardizing the health->Pinto]] of children."]

Violet N. Pinto’s “E-waste Hazard: The Impending Challenge” (2008) offers an excellent analysis and overview of the implications of toxic [[e-waste resources->Reinserted]] on the human body as well as on the environment. <img src="https://user-images.githubusercontent.com/23364064/119924558-d14a0280-bf41-11eb-83d7-d4f4b6e8c511.png" width=800px>

[[Tell me ...->Z1]] (live: 2s)[Where in the world do digital devices come from?] (live: 4s)[How—and by whom—are they produced?] (live: 6s)[What happens to them when they are no longer of cultural value to us?] (live: 10s)[.] (live: 12s)[.] (live: 14s)[.] (live: 16s)[[[Why should I care?->P1]]]

After silicon dioxide, bauxite, cryolite, chalcopyrite, and bornite are respectively refined into silicon, aluminum, and copper to become computer components such as wires, circuit boards, hard drives, keyboard matrixes, and so forth, these computer components can be taken apart to retrieve and salvage materials. They are re-refined to make them suitable for manufacturing once again, and are [[re-inserted into the Production stage->B1]] of the capital circuit.

(live:2s)[ALUMNIUM] (live: 5s)[Like silicon, aluminum is usually found in combination with other materials in composites called bauxite and cryolite; bauxite is more commonly mined today, as cryolite has almost been mined into disappearance (Royal Society of Chemistry “Aluminum” n.p.).] (live: 10s)[The American Aluminum Association notes that there are reserves and mines of each material in multiple continents, but that most aluminum in the bauxite form is excavated in Australia, China, Brazil, India, and [[Guinea]] (n.p.)]

(live:2s)[COPPER] (live:5s)[Like silicon and aluminum, copper does not occur naturally as a resource, but rather, is found as a compound element in minerals such as chalcopyrite and bornite (Royal Society of Chemistry “Copper” n.p.).] (live:10s)[Copper is a critical metal for technological production, highly conductive and found in many forms of wiring. However, our need for copper outweighs its availability:] (live:15s)[despite copper being more abundant than many other natural resources, and despite [[mining expansion and production rates->Copper People]] that are recorded between 15 to 20 million tonnes a year (“Copper Production and Environmental Impact” n.p.), industry estimates note that copper supplies will not be enough to meet growing demands in electronics (Mills n.p.), particularly as we increasingly seek to use electric and [[so-called “green”]] forms of energy.)]

Mining, as noted in the American-based Human Rights Watch organization, possesses its own complex infrastructure. The organization describes the impact of mining on their case study, the Boké region of Guinea, a country that excavates 7% of the world’s bauxite: (align:"<==")+(box:"XXXXXXX===")[“A network of mining roads and railways, used to transport box out to ports, crisscross once isolated rural communities. Industrial ports, where bauxite is loaded onto barges or ships for export, are juxtaposed with the mangroves, paddy fields and local fishing ports that form to the backbone of riverside communities’ livelihoods” (n.p.).] The report highlights the impact of bauxite mining on existing communities, detailing the sociocultural consequences as well. While Human Rights Watch notes that mining provides new jobs, they also outline the government-sanctioned expropriation of ancestral farmlands to mining companies, the reduction in local resources—including fresh water—for existing communities due to an influx of mining laborers, and the reduced air quality due to dust particles (Wormington n.p).

Mining has been shown to cause land degradation from deforestation, habitat destruction, ground- and surface-water pollution, and the exposure of minerals to the air and water, which oxidizes them into acidic forms that are harmful to surrounding flora and fauna (“Copper Production and Environmental Impact” n.p.; Hudson, Fox, and Plumlee 2019). Once copper ores are retrieved, they are refined and smelted with sulfuric acid, a process that also creates pollution in the form of sulfur dioxide. In the air, sulfur dioxide combines with rain to create acid rain, which has harmful effects on forests, agriculture, and natural ecosystems (“Copper Production and Environmental Impact” n.p), in addition to damaging buildings and statues.

The process of process of mining copper involves open-pit mining through near-surface level quarries, but also the much more expensive and dangerous processes of underground mining, which involves burrowing into the earth to reach copper ores. Mining can expose laborers to silica dust particles, resulting in asthma, tuberculosis, and silicosis (Holland, EMRC, and Imperial College London 2019; García-Gómez and Pérez-Cebada 2020).

The fans work to support the main method of computer heat reduction: HEATSINKS draw heat away from internal parts of the computer, as they are made of either or both conductive metal and polymers. Polymers are used in heatsinks to conduct heat away because they are more efficient insulators of heat and cold than conductive metals. By thermodynamic design, heatsinks minimalize air resistance and maximize surface area to conduct heat away from the surfaces of the CPU, the PSU (power supply unit), and the GPU, transferring it out the back or the top of the computer case (“What is a Heatsink?” n.p.). The heatsink works when a fan blows external cool air across its surface, while also moving the machine’s internal hot air along the heatsink’s clustered maze of polymers or copper or aluminum pipes. This movement allows the heatsink’s conductive materials to absorb the heat away from the CPU and, with the fan’s help, escort the hot air [[out of the machine->the computer will shut down.]].